Sensing motion and muscle activity for feedback control of functional electrical stimulation: Ten years of experience in Berlin

In this contribution a number of real-time capable and portable approaches for sensing muscle contractions and motions are reviewed that enable the realization of feedback control schemes. These include inertial measurement units (IMUs), electromyography (EMG), and bioimpedance (BI). This contribution further outlines recent concepts for movement control, which include e.g. cascaded control schemes. A fast inner control loop based on the FES-evoked EMG directly controls the amount of recruited motor units. The design and validation of various novel FES systems are then described that support cycling, walking, reaching, and swallowing. All methods and systems have been developed at the Technische Universität Berlin by the Control Systems Group within the last 10 years in close cooperation with clinical and industrial partners.