Residual stresses in welded structures

The nature of residual stresses in welded structures is discussed in terms of their magnitude, directionality, spatial distribution, range and variability. The effects of the following factors on the residual stresses are considered: material properties, material manufacture, structural geometry, fabrication procedure, welding procedure, post-weld treatments and service conditions.Examples are given of residual stress distributions in plate butt welds, circumferential butt welds and weld cladding. These illustrate the different magnitudes and distributions of residual stress that can be found in different joint geometries, and demonstrate the effects of the mechanical, thermal and metallurgical properties of the constituent materials and the sensitivity of residual stresses to pass sequence and to the restraints applied during welding. Further examples for the common case of circumferential butt welds in pipes and pressure vessels are used to illustrate the extent of residual stresses as a function of distance from the weld and the effects of post-weld heat treatment.Measurements or analytical predictions of residual stresses are often subject to significant scatter or variability. This scatter may be due to systematic factors such as variability in measurement location or material properties, or to experimental error in measured data, erroneous assumptions in analytical modelling or unknown factors such as pre-existing residual stresses, inadequately documented welding or fabrication procedures or unrecorded local repairs. Improved prediction and reduction of uncertainty of residual stresses will require better recording of the whole manufacturing and service history of the welded structure and its component materials and better understanding and analysis of the many processes that may affect the residual stresses.