The high variability of the chiasma plantare and the long flexor tendons: Anatomical aspects of tendon transfer in foot surgery

As tendon transfer of the flexor hallucis longus (FHL) and the flexor digitorum longus (FDL) is an established procedure, exact knowledge of the formation of the chiasma plantare is of great interest. Although the quadratus plantae (QP) appears to play a major role, it has been rarely addressed in previous studies. The aim of the present study was to reinvestigate the formation of the chiasma plantare and the composition of the long flexor tendons in order to clarify the inexact and partly contradictory descriptions published from 1865 onward. The chiasma plantare and the long flexor tendons in both feet of 50 formalin-fixed specimens of body donors (25 men and women) were analyzed by gross anatomical dissection. It was composed of one (3%), two (69%) or three layers (28%) which were variably established by the tendinous and muscular fibers of the FHL, the FDL and the QP. In 61% the FHL gave one or more slips to the FDL, and in 39% there was a bidirectional interconnection between the two tendons. The slip from the FHL to the FDL largely reinforces the second (45%), or the second and third tendon (46%). Thus, the FHL is involved in the first tendon in all cases, in the second one in 97% of cases, and in the third tendon in about one half of cases (53%). In all instances, the FDL contributes to the third to fourth, in 98% the second, and in at least 39% to the first tendon. The QP reinforces the second to fourth tendon in nearly all cases, the fifth in about one half of cases, and even the first tendon in 14% of cases. In addition, the individual composition of the five long flexor tendons arising from the chiasma plantare was analyzed in detail. Special emphasis was placed on the evaluation of side and sex differences as well as individual symmetry. Furthermore, biomechanical, developmental and phylogenetic aspects were outlined. In terms of the outcome of this study, the FHL appears to be the better donor for tendon transfer to restore lost function, but harvesting the FDL seems to be more suitable to prevent long-term functional damage. The decision depends on the individual patient's needs and should be made with due care.