Comparison of IL-1β, TNF-α, hBD-2, and hBD-3 Expression in the Dental Pulp of Smokers Versus Nonsmokers

This study reported that smokers are immunologically deficient in TNF-α and hBD-2, suggesting that dental pulps of smokers possess limited defense mechanisms, affecting their endodontic prognosis and indicating a cause for their reported inferior outcome.