The range of axial rotation of the glenohumeral joint

There is a paucity of data in the literature on the restraining effects of the glenohumeral (GH) ligaments; cadaveric testing is one of the best methods for determining the function of these types of tissues. The aim of this work was to commission a custom-made six degrees of freedom (dof) joint loading apparatus and to establish a protocol for laxity testing of cadaveric shoulder specimens. Nine cadaveric shoulder specimens were used in this study and each specimen had all muscle resected leaving the scapula, humerus (transected at mid-shaft) and GH capsule. Specimens were mounted on the testing apparatus with the joint in the neutral position and at 30°, 60° and 90° GH abduction in the coronal, scapula and 30° forward flexion planes. For each orientation, 0–1 N m in 0.1 N m increments was applied in internal/external rotation and the angular displacement recorded. The toe-region of the moment–displacement curves ended at approximately ±0.5 N m. The highest rotational range of motion for the joint was 140° for ±1.0 N m at 30° GH abduction in the scapula plane. The range of motion shifted towards external rotation with increasing levels of abduction. The results provide the optimum loading regime to pre-condition shoulder specimens and minimise viscoelastic effects in the ligaments prior to laxity testing (>0.5 N m at 30° GH abduction in any of the three planes). Knowledge of the mechanical properties of the GH capsuloligamentous complex has implications for modelling of the shoulder as well surgical planning and intervention.