Differentiating the differential rotation effect

As an observer views a picture from different viewing angles, objects in the picture appear to maintain their orientation relative to the observer. For instance, the eyes of a portrait appear to follow the observer as he or she views the image from different angles. We have explored this rotation effect, often called the Mona Lisa effect. We report three experiments that used portrait photographs to test variations of the Mona Lisa effect. The first experiment introduced picture displacements relative to the observer in directions beyond the horizontal plane. The Mona Lisa effect remained robust for vertical and/or diagonal observer displacements. The experiment also included conditions in which the portrait had averted gaze directions. An interaction between picture position relative to the observer and gaze direction was found. The second experiment followed up on very pronounced individual differences, suggesting that the Mona Lisa effect is even stronger than it should be for half of all observers (over-rotators). These individual differences do not correlate with any of the standard personality dimensions (Big Five) or with spatial intelligence. In the third experiment, we extended the experiment to virtual 3D heads using the same gaze directions and picture displacements as for the 2D portrait faces. Besides the picture displacements relative to the observer, we also added observer displacements relative to the picture. 3D pictures showed the Mona Lisa effect, but to a smaller extent than did 2D pictures.

► We have demonstrated that the Mona Lisa effect (differential rotation effect) is not confined to the horizontal plane.
► A portrait's gaze appears to follow the observer in all displacement directions.
► The effect persists for 3D-portraits.
► However, the effects of oblique gaze directions and individual differences become more critical.