Vasoactive characteristics of bupivacaine and levobupivacaine with and without adjuvant epinephrine in peripheral human skin

Bupivacaine and levobupivacaine have a biphasic vascular effect when injected intradermally, with subclinical doses causing net vasoconstriction. The addition of epinephrine 2.5 μg ml−1 decreases these responses markedly.