Measuring the mechanics of morphogenesis

► Morphogenesis results from the coordinated growth of individual cells. ► Growth occurs as a result of mechanical changes in the cell wall, controlled by molecular-genetic pathways. ► Micro-indentation and nano-indentation techniques are now being used to measure cell wall elasticity, viscosity and plasticity at the cellular level. ► Operating at a range of scales, the techniques rely on analytical and numerical models to interpret experimental results.