Composite structure and properties of the pitcher surface of the carnivorous plant Nepenthes and its influence on the insect attachment system

Pitchers of the carnivorous plant Nepenthes have evolved specialized organs serving the purpose of attracting, capturing, retaining and digesting small animals, mostly insects. They consist of several well distinguishable zones, including a leaf-like lid, a collar-like peristome, a slippery zone and a digestive zone, differing in morphology, microstructure, chemical composition and physical properties. Discriminating zones display different functions, and the combined effects of several zones result in great trapping efficiency. The principal aim of this review is to introduce the structure and physiochemical properties of the pitcher surface, as well as the interaction between the pitcher surface and the insect attachment systems. Combining with our present study, the potential application of the pitcher surface being utilized in bionics to manufacture insect slippery trapping plates is discussed, and the original research direction of the pitcher surface and its application on agricultural pest control is highlighted.