Toward a biaxial model of “bipolar” affective disorders: Further exploration of genetic, molecular and cellular substrates

Current epidemiologic and genetic evidence strongly supports the heritability of bipolar disease. Inconsistencies across linkage and association analyses have been primarily interpreted as suggesting polygenic, nonMendelian and variably-penetrant inheritance (i.e., in terms of interacting disease models). An equally-likely explanation for this genetic complexity is that trait, locus and allelic heterogeneities (i.e., a heterogeneous disease model) are primarily responsible for observed variability at the population level. The two models of genetic complexity are not mutually-exclusive, and are in fact likely to co-exist both in trait determination and disease expression. However, the current model proposes that, while both types of complex genetics are likely central to observable affective trait spectra, inheritance patterns, gross phenotypic categories and treatment-responsiveness in affective disease (as well as the widespread inconsistencies across such studies) may be primarily explained in terms of a heterogeneous disease model. Gene–gene, gene–protein and protein–protein interactions, then, are most likely to serve as trait determinants and ‘phenotypic modifiers’ rather than as primary pathogenic determinants. Moreover, while locus heterogeneity indicates the presence of multiple susceptibility genes at the population level, it does not necessitate polygenic inheritance at the individual or pedigree level. Rather, it is compatible with the possibility of mono- or bigenic determination of disease susceptibility within individuals/pedigrees. More specifically, the biaxial model proposes that integration of specific findings from genetic linkage and association studies, ion channels research as well as pharmacologic mechanism, phenotypic specificity and effectiveness studies suggests that each gene of potential etiologic significance in primary affective illness might be categorized into one of two classes, according to their primary role in neuronal functioning—neuroelectrical and neurochemical. The class(es) of primary genetic alteration (i.e., neuroelectrical, neurochemical or both) determines the type, while the locus and specific allelic variant determines the direction, of pathologic trait alteration(s). In addition to the class, locus and allelic variant of the primary genetic alteration, the cellular- and system-level expressions—including functional trait interaction therein—determine the nature and degree of clinical expression of each trait. Finally, the type, direction and presence of functional interaction between pathologic alterations would indicate the most appropriate pharmacology.