Reclamation and revolt: Social responses in Eastern Inner Mongolia to flood/drought-induced refugees from the North China Plain 1644–1911

In the present study, Eastern Inner Mongolia (EIM) and the North China Plain (NCP) during the Qing Dynasty (1644–1911) were selected as study areas. Based on records of agricultural exploitation, settlement expansion, and revolts obtained from the Veritable Records of the Qing Dynasty (a collection of official records), a collection of proxy data reflecting historical social change in EIM was gathered. The social response in EIM to the immigrants from the NCP, who were mainly destitute and homeless refugees and came into EIM under the acquiescence or even with the encouragement of the government in and after a severe flood or drought, was analysed by comparing the data on climatic factors as well as changes in governmental policy. The results indicated that social response was significantly dependent on phase changes. In the 18th century, immigrants from the NCP promoted the reclamation of EIM, which was a pastoral region throughout the 17th century and displayed agricultural prosperity, settlement expansion, and positive regional interactions. However, from the beginning of the 19th century, agriculture declined and settlement slowed. Immigrants intensified local social contradictions in EIM, which led to a series of armed revolts and collapse in the late 19th century. This transformation was affected by both natural and human factors, especially periodic fluctuations in temperature, which significantly affected land use and environmental capacity in EIM by controlling the location of the agro-pastoral transitional zone, and the implementation and repeal of quarantine policy, which immediately affected the extent of immigration in EIM.

► We quantitatively analysed social response in EIM to climate refugees from NCP.
► Immigrants brought agricultural prosperity to EIM in the 18th century, then collapse in the 19th century.
► This transformation was mainly influenced by periodical climate change and immigration policy reform.
► Traffic accessibility was also an important factor.