Metal phytoremediation: General strategies, genetically modified plants and applications in metal nanoparticle contamination

• The different available phytoremediation strategies are discussed.
• Biological and physico-chemical processes involved in phytoremediation are noted.
• Advantages and limitations of each phytoremediation strategy are examined.
• The use of transgenic species in phytoremediation is debated.
• Nanoremediation, the phytoremediation of metallic nanoparticles, is considered.

The accumulation of metals in different environmental compartments poses a risk to both the environment and biota health. In particular, the continuous increase of these elements in soil ecosystems is a major worldwide concern. Phytoremediation has been gaining more attention in this regard. This approach takes advantage of the unique and selective uptake capabilities of plant root systems, and applies these natural processes alongside the translocation, bioaccumulation, and contaminant degradation abilities of the entire plant and, although it is a relatively recent technology, beginning in the 90's, it is already considered a green alternative solution to the problem of metal pollution, with great potential. This review focuses on phytoremediation of metals from soil, sludge, wastewater and water, the different strategies applied, the biological and physico-chemical processes involved and the advantages and limitations of each strategy. Special note is given to the use of transgenic species and phytoremediation of metallic nanoparticles.