Impacts of plug-in electric vehicles in a balancing area

The results show that deploying battery electric vehicles (1) has little impact on the average cost of electricity generation-maximum of $2.5 per MW h for the cases studied with 40% penetration in the light-duty fleet, (2) reduces the overall criteria pollutant emissions except for one case, and (3) results in a smoother load profile, reduces the use of peaking units, and reduces the average emission intensity of the grid through controlled off-peak charging.