Input-output and structural decomposition analysis of Singapore's carbon emissions

Singapore is an island city-state. It lacks conventional energy resources and is alternative energy disadvantaged. In the past decade (2000-2010), its energy-related carbon emissions increased from 37.8 to 44.4 million tonnes of CO2. This paper analyses the city state's carbon emissions from the demand perspective using the input-output (I-O) method and investigate the drivers of emission changes using structural decomposition analysis (SDA). It is the first comprehensive analysis of Singapore's emissions using the I-O framework. The results obtained show that exports accounted for nearly two-thirds of its total emissions and growth in its emissions in the last decade was largely export-driven. Emissions increased as export-oriented industries and export volume expanded. Fuel switching and energy efficiency, however, helped to lower growth in emissions. Besides exports, household-related emissions accounted for about a quarter of Singapore's total emissions. The emissions related to different household groups remained fairly stable as increases in embodied (indirect) emissions were offset by decreases in direct emissions. The high-income household group registered the largest increase in direct emissions, while the middle-income household group registered the largest increase in embodied emissions. The policy implications of our findings are discussed.