Attribution analyses of temperature extremes using a set of 16 indices

Detection and attribution studies have demonstrated that anthropogenic forcings have been driving significant changes in temperature extremes since the middle of the 20th century. Moreover, new methodologies have been developed for the attribution of extreme events that assess how human influence may have changed their characteristics. Here we combine formal statistical analyses based on optimal fingerprinting to attribute observed long term changes in temperature extremes with an ensemble-based approach for event attribution. Our analyses are applied to 16 indices constructed with daily temperature data that focus on different characteristics of extremes and together build up a more complete representation of historical changes in warm and cold extremes than previous studies. For each index we compute an annual value for all years of the post-1960 period using data from observations and experiments with a coupled Earth System model for the analysis of multi-decadal changes and a high-resolution atmospheric model for event attribution. The models indicate that anthropogenic forcings have influenced almost all indices in recent decades and led to more prominent changes in the frequency of extremes. The optimal fingerprinting analyses show that for most indices the anthropogenic signal is detectable in changes during 1961-2010 both in Europe and on a quasi-global scale. The weaker natural effect, resulting mainly from volcanic eruptions, is in most cases not detectable, with the exception of large scale changes in indices linked to the frequency of cold night-time extremes. Our event analyses estimate how anthropogenic forcings alter the chances of getting new record index values in Europe and find that such extremes would be markedly rare if human influence were not accounted for, whereas in the current climate their return times range from a few years to a few decades.