The role of thioredoxin reductase and glutathione reductase in plumbagin-induced, reactive oxygen species-mediated apoptosis in cancer cell lines

Plumbagin is a secondary metabolite that was first identified in the Plumbago genus of plants. It is a naphthoquinone compound with anti-atherosclerosis, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, contraceptive, cardiotonic, immunosuppressive, and neuroprotective activities. However, the mechanisms of plumbagin's activities are largely unknown. In this study, we examined the effect of plumbagin on HepG2 hepatocellular carcinoma cells as well as LLC lung cancer cells, SiHa cervical carcinoma cells. Plumbagin significantly decreased HepG2 cell viability in a dose-dependent manner. Additionally, treatment with plumbagin significantly increased the Bax/Bcl-2 ratio and caspase-3/7 activity. Using the similarity ensemble approach (SEA)-a state-of-the-art cheminformatic technique-we identified two previously unknown cellular targets of plumbagin: thioredoxin reductase (TrxR) and glutathione reductase (GR). This was then confirmed using protein- and cell-based assays. We found that plumbagin was directly reduced by TrxR, and that this reduction was inhibited by the TrxR inhibitor, sodium aurothiomalate (ATM). Plumbagin also decreased the activity of GR. Plumbagin, and the GR inhibitor sodium arsenite all increased intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels and this increase was significantly attenuated by pretreatment with the ROS scavenger N-acetyl-cysteine (NAC) in HepG2 cells. Plumbagin increased TrxR-1 and heme oxygenase (HO)-1 expression and pretreatment with NAC significantly attenuated the plumbagin-induced increase of TrxR-1 and HO-1 expression in HepG2 cells, LLC cells and SiHa cells. Pretreatment with NAC significantly prevented the plumbagin-induced decrease in cell viability in these cell types. In conclusion, plumbagin exerted its anticancer effect by directly interacting with TrxR and GR, and thus increasing intracellular ROS levels.