Beyond East vs. West: social class, region, and religion as forms of culture

• Ethnicity or nationality are not the only forms of culture.
• In some ways other forms of culture have psychological consequences parallel to those of ethnicity/nationality, in other ways they may have unique effects.
• Working class culture is linked to more interdependence, holistic thinking, empathy, and vigilance.
• Regional cultures vary in emphasis on honor, individualism, conformity, and tightness–looseness.
• Religious cultures differ in attribution, cognition, work style, and moral judgment.

In this article we seek to further broaden the focus of the psychological study of cultural differences beyond the predominant focus on ethnicity and nationality. We highlight ways that other forms of culture, including social class, region, and religion, sometimes have psychological consequences that parallel those of ethnicity and nationality, and are sometimes more unique. For example, we review recent work that working class culture is more interdependent, holistic, empathic, and vigilant; that regional cultures vary in honor, individualism, conformity, and tightness-looseness; and that religions differ in attributions, cognition, working styles, and the bases of morality. We conclude with some recommendations for future work on culture, including the origins of cultures, the multiple forms of culture, the uniqueness and similarities of cultures, and how multiple forms of culture interact.