Doping use and deviance in Swiss national and international elite cycling

• Doping was considered deviant only at the national elite level of cycling.
• Dopers were considered ‘outsiders’ at the national elite level and ‘insiders’ in international elite cycling.
• Social pressures to dope became less strong at the international elite level.
• The definition of doping in the cycling environment differed from the WADA definition.
• A personal physician could be considered the moral entrepreneur for doping in this study.

AimBased on the theory of labelling, this paper sought to better understand doping norms in Swiss national and international elite cycling.MethodsThe investigation was based on 16 semi-structured interviews conducted in 2007 with eight active Swiss national and international elite cyclists and other people involved in cycling (coaches, physicians, cycling team and individual managers, journalists).FindingsDoping was considered deviant at the national elite level, but not at the international level. At the national elite level, dopers were considered the ‘outsiders’, and the ‘insiders’ were cyclists who did not use performance-enhancing substances. In contrast at the international elite level, dopers were considered the ‘insiders’. Nevertheless, some changes were observed in international elite cycling: even if some social pressures to dope persisted at the international elite level, they were less strong. Clean cyclists were not harassed or excluded from international elite cycling. Notably, a personal physician outside the cycling environment emerged as the rule creator and enforcer, and could be considered the moral entrepreneur in this study. Finally, the definition of doping in the cycling environment differed from the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA).Conclusions and implicationsDoping norms in international elite cycling have evolved slowly. It seems important that the WADA continues its effort to develop more efficient preventive and repressive anti-doping actions, and to extend these measures to all persons involved in doping practices, such as personal physicians who play an important role in doping use and norms.