Binding to protein surfaces by supramolecular multivalent scaffolds

Multivalency plays a pivotal role in biological recognition, particularly at protein–protein and protein–carbohydrate interaction sites. Scaffolds of diverse structure, flexibility, and valency are gaining increasing biomedical importance in the development of artificial multivalent ligands for these interfaces. Relevant examples range from small C4 symmetric calix[4]arenes and porphyrin ligands, which may achieve nanomolar affinity for protein surfaces of pharmaceutical interest, to large-sized dendrimers that provide promising adherence-inhibition for toxins and other relevant lectins. In addition, highly flexible supramolecular platforms like rotaxanes and polymers have been proposed as challenging alternatives to more rigid designs. Finally, nanoparticles are being exploited for this aim as they present important advantages from the biological and synthetic points of view.