Regulation of Angiotensin II receptor signaling by cysteine modification of NF-κB

Angiotensin II (Ang II) is a major vasoactive peptide of the renin-angiotensin system. Ang II is originally found as one of potent vasoconstrictors, but is now attracted attention as an essential mediator of many cardiovascular problems, including endothelial dysfunction, arrhythmia and structural remodeling of cardiovascular systems. Most of the known pathophysiological effects of Ang II are mediated through Ang type1 receptors (AT1Rs), and the up-regulation of AT1Rs is one of important causes by which Ang II can contribute to cardiovascular diseases. A growing body of evidence has suggested that reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS) play important roles in the regulation of AT1R signaling. In cardiac fibroblasts, stimulation with cytokines or bacterial toxins induces AT1R up-regulation through NADPH oxidase-dependent ROS production. In contrast, nitric oxide (NO) decreases AT1R density through cysteine modification (S-nitrosylation) of a transcriptional factor, nuclear factor κB (NF-κB). The difference between the effects of ROS and NO on AT1R expression may be caused by the difference between intracellular location of ROS signaling and that of NO signaling, as the agonist-induced S-nitrosylation of NF-κB requires a local interaction between NO synthase (NOS) and NF-κB in the perinuclear region. Thus, the spatial and temporal regulation of cysteine modification by ROS or RNS may underlie the resultant changes of AT1R signaling induced by agonist stimulation.