Response of the cell membrane–cytoskeleton complex to osmotic and freeze/thaw stresses. Part 2: The link between the state of the membrane–cytoskeleton complex and the cellular damage

In an earlier paper [35], we examined the mutual interaction between the actin cytoskeleton and the cell membrane and explored the role this interaction plays during freeze/thaw. In this follow-up paper, we investigate the physical and chemical stresses induced by freeze/thaw and explore the different mechanisms of damage caused by these stresses. Our results showed that changes in cell volume during freeze/thaw and the unfrozen water content in the solution alter the cytoskeleton stiffness, and the available membrane material. Combined with unfavorable ice–membrane interactions and increasing membrane stiffness, increased de-structuring of the membrane (such as bleb and microvilli formation) synergistically act on the membrane–cytoskeleton system generating irreversible damage.