Seasonal photoperiodism in vertebrates: from coincidence to amplitude

In vertebrates living in regions that range from tropical to polar zones, the day length (photoperiod) is a powerful synchronizer of seasonal changes in endocrine and metabolic physiology. This seasonal photoperiodism depends on the responses of internal circadian clocks to changing patterns of light–dark exposure, which can be conceptualized in the form of ‘coincidence-timing’ models. The structural basis for this timing function is formed by a specialized ‘photoperiodic axis’ that links light reception to the neuroendocrine system. In this review we describe the essential elements of this axis in mammals and birds, and discuss recent progress in understanding the cellular and molecular mechanisms through which this axis transduces photoperiodic change into altered endocrine output.