Testosterone levels of free-ranging resident mantled howler monkey males in relation to the number and density of solitary males: A test of the challenge hypothesis

The challenge hypothesis asserts that testosterone levels and aggression in male adult animals are closely associated with one another in the context of intense reproductive competition, particularly when males challenge one another for the access to females. For mantled howler monkeys (Alouatta palliata), the presence of a solitary male in the vicinity of a social group can be considered a threat for the reproductive success of the resident males, as group takeovers by solitary males are followed by a reestablishment of the access to females among group males and sometimes by infanticide. Therefore, these episodes should be accompanied by an increase in testosterone secretion according to the challenge hypothesis. In order to test our prediction, we relate different group and subpopulation variables to the testosterone levels measured in feces collected from 10 groups living in 6 forest fragments, at Los Tuxtlas, Mexico. Our results suggest that resident A. palliata males regard solitary individuals as potential contesters for their reproductive success and that they respond to interactions with them with an increase in testosterone levels, that is increasing their aggressiveness. Our results also suggest that in the studied groups all males have at least certain access to mates and that the entrance of a new male would affect their reproductive success negatively. Finally, the negative effects of chronically high testosterone levels may be negatively affecting the fitness of our study groups living in high population densities and small fragments.