Comparative ecological risks of pesticides used in plantation production of papaya: Application of the SYNOPS indicator

Pesticides are used intensively for crop protection in tropical fruit plantations. Assessments of the relative risks posed by pesticides are needed to assist in the development of management plans that minimize ecological impacts. In this study, the risk indicator SYNOPS_2 was used to compare risks to aquatic ecosystems by pesticides commonly used in papaya plantations. Plant interception and spray drift were measured during six applications of three pesticides (chlorothalonil, chloropyrifos, and malathion) using a turbo fan driven sprayer. Plant interception was estimated to be higher (42.6 ± 12.7%; p = 0.04) in late (8–14 months old) than in early (4 months old) trees (20.1 ± 25.3%). Chlorothalonil concentrations of up to 11.0 μg L− 1 were found in water from an adjacent ditch after field application. Concentrations of this pesticide (7.4 ± 4.1 μg L− 1) in runoff water were also significantly (p < 0.01) higher than those of malathion (2.4 ± 1.9 μg L− 1) and chlorpyrifos (0.8 ± 0.5 μg L− 1). Good correlation between measured and predicted values (r2 = 0.56–0.85, p < 0.01) showed that SYNOPS_2 is able to describe trends in runoff pollution in papaya plantations. Linear equations were obtained in order to correct numerical disagreement between measured and calculated runoff concentrations. An independent test showed a reasonable agreement between measured chlorothalonil concentrations and the predicted values using the proposed equations. Fifteen pesticides used in papaya cultivation were ranked according to their calculated chronic biological risk index. Pesticides with the highest risk index for non-target organisms were: chlorothalonil for algae, lambda cyahalotrin for Daphnia and fish, and malathion for earthworms. Chlorothalonil was the pesticide with the highest exposure level in water and therefore represents a high risk for aquatic life. Results show that SYNOPS_2 can be used as a pesticide risk indicator on papaya and possibly other tropical fruit plantations.