In vitro and in vivo approaches for the measurement of oral bioavailability of lead (Pb) in contaminated soils: A review

► Among direct exposure pathways for Pb in urban environments, inadvertent ingestion of soil is considered the major concern. ► The concentration of lead in house dusts is significantly related to that in garden soil, and is highest at older homes. ► In modeling risks from diet/water/soil Pb, US-EPA presumes that soil-Pb is 60% as bioavailable as other dietary Pb. ► Joplin study proved that RBALP method seriously underestimated the ability of phosphate treatments to reduce soil Pb bioavailability. ► Zia et al. method has revealed that urban soils have only 5-10% bioaccessible Pb of total Pb level.