Increased particle emissions from early fuel injection timing Diesel low temperature combustion

► Very advanced injection timing produced higher PM emissions. ► Particle size distribution changed significantly with advanced injection timings. ► 1D free fuel spray model used to investigate possible liquid spray impingement. ► Particles >50 nm, PM mass, and liquid length impingement increased correspondingly. ► Particles <50 nm were relatively constant until an abrupt 24× increase past −30°aTDC.