Life cycle cost analysis of structural concrete using seawater, recycled concrete aggregate, and GFRP reinforcement

Results were found to be highly sensitive to the assumed discount rate and construction costs. The proposed combination achieved cost savings only with a real discount rate (r) of 5.9% or higher. Likewise, using stainless-steel reinforcement was found cost-effective at r⩽1.35% and nominal construction costs exceeding 85% of the material cost. The differences in concrete mixture cost, however, appeared to have insignificant influence on the ultimate LCCA results compared to those obtained from altering the reinforcement material.