Signaling molecules regulating phenotypic conversions of astrocytes and glial scar formation in damaged nerve tissues

Phenotypic conversion of astrocytes from resting to reactive (i.e., astrocytic activation) occurs in numerous brain disorders. Astrocytic activation in severely damaged brain regions often leads to glial scar formation. Because astrocytic activation and glial scar largely affect the vulnerability and tissue repair of damaged brain, numerous studies have been made to clarify mechanisms regulating the astrocytic phenotype. The phenotypic conversion is accompanied by the increased expression of intermediate filament proteins and the induction of hypertrophy in reactive astrocytes. Severe brain damage results in proliferation and migration of reactive astrocytes, which lead to glial scar formations at the injured areas. Gliogenesis from neural progenitors in the adult brain is also involved in astrocytic activation and glial scar formation. Recent studies have shown that increased expression of connexin 43, aquaporin 4, matrix metalloproteinase 9, and integrins alter the function of astrocytes. The transcription factors: STAT3, OLIG2, SMAD, NF-κB, and Sp1 have been suggested to play regulatory roles in astrocytic activation and glial scar formation. In this review, I discuss the roles of these key molecules regulating the pathophysiological functions of reactive astrocytes.