TGF-β/Smad signaling pathway positively up-regulates the differentiation of Interleukin-9-producing CD4+ T cells in human Echinococcus granulosus infection

IL-9 may aggravate the inflammatory response in the liver of CE patients. The TGF-β/Smad signaling pathway is activated, and the signaling pathway may promote the differentiation of Th9 cells and IL-9 expression in active CE patients.