Parasite–bird interactions in urban areas: Current evidence and emerging questions

Urbanisation causes significant changes to species composition, species interactions and ecological and evolutionary processes. Changes in host–parasite interactions have the potential to be one of the important consequences of urbanisation, influencing the species able to exploit urban landscapes. We compile information about these less-studied interactions, focusing on the interaction between parasites (ectoparasites, blood parasites and intestinal parasites) and birds. Our review of the literature identified a poor knowledge of bird–parasite interactions in urban areas. While studies identifying parasites were more common than those comparing parasite abundance or host health, studies were limited geographically and to a few bird species. We found that urbanisation could have a positive or negative effect on the diversity and prevalence of bird parasites. Very few studies have linked parasite loads to bird health. We identify some hypotheses that need further consideration across broader regions and species to determine if parasites play a role in the establishment and success of birds in cities and how their health and body condition are affected. Studies of this type could provide valuable tools to understand how to maintain and conserve urban biodiversity.

► We did a literature review on birds in urban areas and their parasites to determine if parasites might influence bird species occurrence in cities.
► With only 73 papers found, the understanding of the role of parasites in determining the presence of birds in cities is in its infancy.
► Most papers document parasitic fauna present with only a few investigating how urbanisation might influence parasitic infestations.
► Very few investigated how parasite infestations influence bird health.
► There is a significant knowledge gap in understanding the distribution and identification of parasites and how susceptibility to parasites might influence the establishment of birds in cities.