Separation and preconcentration procedures for the determination of lead using spectrometric techniques: A review

Lead is recognized worldwide as a poisonous metal. Thus, the determination of this element is often required in environmental, biological, food and geological samples. However, these analyses are difficult because such samples contain relatively low concentrations of lead, which fall below the detection limit of conventional analytical techniques such as flame atomic absorption spectrometry and inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry. Several preconcentration procedures to determine lead have therefore been devised, involving separation techniques such as liquid–liquid extraction, solid phase extraction, coprecipitation and cloud point extraction. Citing 160 references, this paper offers a critical review of preconcentration procedures for determining lead using spectroanalytical techniques.