Trace and ultratrace analysis of liquid samples by X-ray fluorescence spectrometry

• Recent advances in instrumentation for X-ray fluorescence (XRF).
• Analytical capabilities and applications of XRF to trace analysis of liquid samples.
• Sample treatments and preconcentration procedures used for liquid analysis by XRF.
• Role of XRF spectrometry in the liquid analysis.

This article gives an overview of the state-of-the-art of recent preconcentration strategies published in X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (XRF), including the use of microextraction procedures, nanomaterials, filters and activated thin layers. We give special attention to current XRF instrumentation and the advantages and the limitations of each mode (including large-scale instrumentation, bench-top spectrometers and hand-held systems). Also, we comment on and discuss trends and future perspectives of XRF spectrometry in trace and ultratrace analysis of liquid samples.