Bone development

• Development of the vertebrate skeleton reflects its evolutionary history.
• Processes of endochondral and intramembranous ossification are described.
• Consequences of mutations affecting skeletal development are discussed.
• Cell lineage axial skeletal development is described.
• Skeletal architecture and patterning require muscle forces and mechanical loading.

The development of the vertebrate skeleton reflects its evolutionary history. Cartilage formation came before biomineralization and a head skeleton evolved before the formation of axial and appendicular skeletal structures. This review describes the processes that result in endochondral and intramembranous ossification, the important roles of growth and transcription factors, and the consequences of mutations in some of the genes involved. Following a summary of the origin of cartilage, muscle, and tendon cell lineages in the axial skeleton, we discuss the role of muscle forces in the formation of skeletal architecture and assembly of musculoskeletal functional units. Finally, ontogenetic patterning of bones in response to mechanical loading is reviewed.This article is part of a Special Issue entitled "Muscle Bone Interactions".