Language skills in low-SES rural Appalachian children: Kindergarten to middle childhood

This study examined the development of language in low-SES rural Appalachian children from kindergarten through middle childhood. Findings showed that the children's language skills improved significantly between kindergarten and middle childhood, with all middle childhood language means within the average range. However, all areas of language except the ability to correctly interpret nonliteral language remained significantly below normative population means. Girls performed significantly better than did boys and higher-SES girls performed better than lower-SES girls. Nonliteral language and receptive syntax were relative strengths and vocabulary and pragmatic judgment were relative weaknesses. Use of grammatical markers of Appalachian English was not related to language skills and, as a group, these children demonstrated adequate phonological working memory. Standardized measures of morphology and syntax best classified children into groups who received remedial services for reading or other language-related tasks and those who did not. Implications of these finding are discussed.