Evaluating marine ecosystem health: Case studies of indicators using direct observations and modelling methods

► We illustrate through case studies the usefulness and complementarities of empirical and modelling methods to assess ecosystem health. ► Each method to derive indicators described in the case studies considers a different degree of integration of biological and habitat components of the ecosystem. ► A necessary trade-off will occur between capturing the complexity of the system and preserving the conceptual simplicity of the assessment. ► The combination of attributes that consider different aspects of the system can provide a more integrative view of ecosystem health.