A neuroendocrine basis for the hierarchical control of frog courtship vocalizations

► Xenopus laevis vocalizations differ in males and females due to hormone action. ► Sex-typical fictive songs can be produced by the isolated brain and vocal organ. ► A hindbrain central pattern generator generates vocal patterns in both sexes. ► Calls are initiated by forebrain and midbrain, modulated by auditory input. ► Hormone sensitivity of different circuit elements changes across the lifespan.