The laminated layer: Recent advances and insights into Echinococcus biology and evolution

- Echinococcus larvae are protected by the acellular, mucin-based laminated layer (LL).
- E. granulosus probably uses more mucin protein backbones than E. multilocularis.
- In addition, the mucin glycans in E. granulosus undergo more elongation.
- The LL glycans may be optimized to interact with liver-specific host receptors.
- The LL also has carbohydrate-independent modulatory effects on innate immune cells.