Water balance implications of switching from continuous submergence to flush irrigation in a rice-growing district

Studies conducted at the field scale report significant reductions in the irrigation requirements of rice when continuous submergence (CS) is replaced by less water-demanding regimes such as flush-irrigation (FI, i.e. intermittent irrigations of rice growing in non-submerged soils). However, the effects of their extensive application in paddy areas with shallow groundwater is much less studied. We present a scenario analysis investigating the impacts on irrigation requirements induced by a shift from CS to FI in an irrigation district of Northern Italy where rice is the main crop, followed by maize and poplar. The area is characterised by a shallow water Table whose depth fluctuates between two meters (in winter) and less than 1 m (in summer). We applied a three-stage procedure, where we first analysed present state conditions using the SWAP (Soil, Water, Atmosphere, Plant) model to simulate irrigation deliveries and percolation fluxes. Then, we calibrated an empirical relationship between estimated percolation fluxes and measured depths to groundwater. Finally, we applied this relationship, in combination with the SWAP model, to predict the variation of district irrigation requirements due to a widespread shift from CS to FI. Results show that neglecting the feedback between groundwater recharge due to irrigation and groundwater depth led to overestimating the reduction of irrigation requirements of rice, which decreased from around 80% when no feedback was considered to around 60% when it was accounted for. Moreover, increased groundwater depths resulted in higher irrigation requirements for maize with an estimated growth of more than 50% due to the need of shortening the irrigation turn. These results demonstrate the importance of considering the impacts on the hydrological processes at larger scales when planning the conversion of CS into more efficient field irrigation methods.