Applications of dispersive liquid-liquid micro-extraction in forensic toxicology

Of the several techniques available for micro-extraction, dispersive liquid-liquid micro-extraction (DLLME) has attracted the interest of forensic toxicologists in recent years. DLLME is a simple, fast, inexpensive and environmentally benign micro-extraction technique with high enrichment factors and extraction efficiencies. It becomes a versatile micro-extraction method with the use of a broad range of analytical instruments. DLLME has found a wide range of applications in the field of forensic toxicology, such as analysis of narcotic substances, drugs of abuse, hallucinogens, cannabinoids, metals and pesticides. Furthermore, the capability of DLLME for simultaneous derivatization and extraction and its coupling with injection-port silylation (IPS) simplify and accelerate the analysis of polar analytes by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). This review focuses on various applications and operating procedures of DLLME for various classes of drugs and poisons of forensic interest. In addition, viability of future trends for the application of DLLME in forensic toxicology has been addressed.