Electrostatic environment near lunar vertical hole: 3D plasma particle simulations

The dayside electrostatic environment near the lunar surface is governed by interactions among the solar wind plasma, photoelectrons, and the charged lunar surface, providing topologically complex boundaries to the plasma. Three-dimensional, particle-in-cell simulations are applied to recently discovered vertical holes on the Moon, which have spatial scales of tens of meters and greater depth-to-diameter ratios than typical impact craters. The vertical wall of the hole introduces a new boundary for both photo and solar wind electrons. The current balance condition established at a hole bottom is altered by the limited solar wind electron penetration into the hole due to loss at the wall and photoelectron current path connecting the hole bottom and wall surfaces. The self-consistent modeling not only reproduces intense differential charging between sunlit and shadowed surfaces, but also reveals the potential difference between sunlit surfaces inside and outside the hole, demonstrating the uniqueness of the near-hole electrostatic environment.