Liver fluke vaccines in ruminants: strategies, progress and future opportunities

- The development of a vaccine for Fasciola spp. in livestock is a challenge.
- Harnessing acquired immunity expressed by resistant livestock against fluke infection will inform vaccine development.
- Antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity at the surface of juvenile/immature flukes is a host immune mechanism.
- Antigens on the surface tegument of young flukes represent prime candidates for a fluke vaccine.
- Type 1 immune response shortly after fluke infection is associated with resistance to infection in resistant sheep.