Quantitative X-ray fluorescence analysis of samples of less than ‘infinite thickness’: Difficulties and possibilities

X-ray fluorescence spectrometry due to its nondestructive nature is widely applied in analysis of single layers and multiple layer films (e.g. semiconductors, electrooptic and solar cell devices, coatings, corrosion and paint layers), individual particles (airborne, fly ash, gunshot residue particles, etc.), art and archeological objects (manuscripts, paintings, icons) and many others. Quantitative analysis of these materials, frequently classified as samples of less than infinite thickness (thin or intermediate-thickness samples), required applying adequate matrix correction methods taking into account complex dependence of analyte fluorescent radiation intensity on full matrix composition and sample thickness. In this article, the matrix correction methods including fundamental parameters, Monte Carlo simulations, influence coefficients algorithms and methods based on X-ray transmission measurements are reviewed.The difficulties in the analysis of single layer and multiple layer films and the accuracy of fundamental parameter methods in simultaneous determination of their thickness and composition are discussed. The quantitative analysis of individual particles and inhomogeneous and/or complex structure materials using fundamental parameter and Monte Carlo simulation methods in micro-beam X-ray fluorescence spectrometry are also reviewed. Some references are devoted to the analysis of light matrix samples, e.g. geological, environmental and biological samples, in which undetectable low-Z elements are present (so-called ‘dark matrix’) using backscattered fundamental parameter methods.Since the samples of less than infinite thickness are partially transparent for X-ray beams, the transmission measurements present possibilities that are unattainable for bulk samples. Thus, the emission–transmission method and also new instruments allowing measurements of the primary X-ray beam transmitted through the sample together with measurements of X-ray fluorescence intensities in transmission and reflection geometry are reviewed.