Applications of lead isotope ratio measurements

Lead isotope ratio measurements (Pb-IRM) have been widely used for identification purposes for several decades. This article reviews current analytical techniques available for Pb-IRM, including:(i)thermal ionization mass spectrometry (TIMS);(ii)quadrupole inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (Q-ICP-MS);(iii)inductively coupled plasma sector field mass spectrometry (ICP-SMS);(iv)multiple collector inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (MC-ICP-MS); and,(v)inductively coupled plasma time-of-flight mass spectrometry (ICP-TOF-MS).We summarize recent applications of Pb-IRM in four major areas, including:(i)tracing Pb sources and monitoring historical and environmental changes;(ii)determination of Pb by isotope-dilution mass spectrometry;(iii)forensic examination and authentication; and,(iv)U-Pb and U-Th-Pb dating of zircon.In addition, we briefly describe new trends in direct Pb-IRM for solid and liquid samples.