Outer membrane vesicles of Vibrio vulnificus deliver cytolysin–hemolysin VvhA into epithelial cells to induce cytotoxicity

The Gram-negative bacterium Vibrio vulnificus produces cytotoxins that induce the acute death of host cells. However, the secretory mechanisms of such cytotoxins have not been extensively studied. Previously, we reported that substantial amounts of V. vulnificus cytolysin–hemolysin (VvhA) are produced in vivo during the bacterial infection in mice and that this cytotoxin, in conjunction with RtxA1, mediates cytotoxicity. In this study, we investigated whether V. vulnificus cells release outer membrane vesicles (OMVs), which are used by some Gram-negative bacteria to deliver virulence factors into host cells. We found that V. vulnificus produce OMVs and that these vesicles can induce host cell death. This process appears to be mediated by VvhA, as evidenced by the finding that OMVs isolated from VvhA-null mutants do not induce cytotoxicity. In addition, cholesterol sequestration in the host cells prevents OMV-mediated VvhA delivery, indicating that VvhA-bearing OMVs interact with cholesterol on the host cell surface. Furthermore, intracellular expression experiments revealed that VvhA-mediated cytotoxicity is driven by its N-terminal leukocidin domain.

Research highlights
► Vibrio vulnificus produces OMVs.
► V. vulnificus OMVs transport VvhA cytolysin but not RtxA1.
► VvhA delivered by OMVs induces apoptotic changes in epithelial cells.
► Disruption of membrane-associated cholesterol prevents VvhA delivery.
► Intracellular VvhA expression induces cell death, and the N-terminal leukocidin domain of VvhA is critical for the induction of cytotoxicity.