Insights gained from palaeomicrobiology into ancient and modern tuberculosis

The direct detection of ancient Mycobacterium tuberculosis molecular biomarkers has profoundly changed our understanding of the disease in ancient and historical times. Initially, diagnosis was based on visual changes to skeletal human remains, supplemented by radiological examination. The introduction of biomolecular methods has enabled the specific identification of tuberculosis in human tissues, and has expanded our knowledge of the palaeopathological changes associated with the disease. We now realize that the incidence of past tuberculosis was greater than previously estimated, as M. tuberculosis biomarkers can be found in calcified and non-calcified tissues with non-specific or no visible pathological changes. Modern concepts of the origin and evolution of M. tuberculosis are informed by the detection of lineages of known location and date.