Persistent organic pollutants in moss as bioindicators of atmospheric pollution in Singapore

Moss samples were collected from the island of Singapore and analysed for a range of organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Although all compounds analysed have been banned from use in Singapore, they were detected in all samples collected. Among the hexachlorocyclohexanes (HCH), β-HCH was the most dominant isomer, while trans-chlorane was found to be the most dominant cyclodiene pesticide. High levels (79.12 ng g−1) of PCBs were detected in mosses collected from a nearby island due to active accumulation of pollutants associated with boat emissions. Significant spatial variations in the levels of organic pollutants in Singapore were largely absent, indicating that air masses moving over the island deposit OCPs and PCBs in a uniform pattern. A comparison of moss pollutant levels with available data from Czech Republic showed that dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (p,p′-DDE), dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (p,p′-DDT) and PCB levels in Singapore are the highest. The presence of these compounds suggests that they are still used in the region and are environmentally recalcitrant.