Granulocyte macrophage-colony stimulating factor protects against substantia nigra dopaminergic cell loss in an environmental toxin model of Parkinson's disease

► In this paper we show that the hematopoietic cytokine, granulocyte macrophage colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF), had neuroprotective effects in a toxin based model of Parkinson's disease. ► Because GM-CSF was effective when given systemically as well as centrally, it might hold particular clinical promise. ► GM-CSF might act by “normalizing” inflammatory glial cells and promoting trophic support to dopamine neurons following bacterial or chemical toxin exposure.