Sodium alginate/graphene oxide hydrogel beads as permeable reactive barrier material for the remediation of ciprofloxacin-contaminated groundwater

The wide occurrence of antibiotics in groundwater has raised serious concerns due to their impacts on humans and the ecosystem. Most of the research in groundwater remediation focuses on the exploitation of nano-materials. However, nano-materials have several disadvantages such as high production cost, rapid reduction in permeability, disposal problems, and high sensitivity to environmental conditions. To solve these issues, novel sodium alginate/graphene oxide hydrogel beads (GSA) were synthesised and their effectiveness as permeable reactive barrier (PRB) backfill material in the remediation of ciprofloxacin (CPX)-contaminated groundwater was tested. The adsorption of CPX onto GSA followed the pseudo-second-order kinetic model. The isotherm data followed the Freundlich model. The maximum adsorption capacity was 100 mg g−1 at pH 7.0. The adsorption process was sensitive to contact time, initial CPX concentration and ionic strength. However, it was not pH sensitive. Hydrophobic interaction, electrostatic interaction, ion exchange, H-bonding, and pore filling were proposed to be the main adsorption mechanisms. The effects of flow rate, influent CPX concentration, and ionic strength on the performance of PRB were confirmed through flow-through column experiments and by using a chemical non-equilibrium two-site model. Accordingly, a proper PRB was designed based on hydrogeological conditions. Finally, the lifetime and cost of the PRBs were calculated. The results obtained provided concrete evidence that GSA is a promising adsorbent material for PRBs applications in the remediation of CPX-contaminated groundwater.