Evolution of fault zones in carbonates with mechanical stratigraphy – Insights from scale models using layered cohesive powder

We present analogue models of the formation of dilatant normal faults and fractures in carbonate fault zones, using cohesive hemihydrate powder (CaSO4·½H2O). The evolution of these dilatant fault zones involves a range of processes such as fragmentation, gravity-driven breccia transport and the formation of dilatant jogs. To allow scaling to natural prototypes, extensive material characterisation was done. This showed that tensile strength and cohesion depend on the state of compaction, whereas the friction angle remains approximately constant. In our models, tensile strength of the hemihydrate increases with depth from 9 to 50 Pa, while cohesion increases from 40 to 250 Pa. We studied homogeneous and layered material sequences, using sand as a relatively weak layer and hemihydrate/graphite mixtures as a slightly stronger layer. Deformation was analyzed by time-lapse photography and Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) to calculate the evolution of the displacement field. With PIV the initial, predominantly elastic deformation and progressive localization of deformation are observed in detail. We observed near-vertical opening-mode fractures near the surface. With increasing depth, dilational shear faults were dominant, with releasing jogs forming at fault-dip variations. A transition to non-dilatant shear faults was observed near the bottom of the model. In models with mechanical stratigraphy, fault zones are more complex. The inferred stress states and strengths in different parts of the model agree with the observed transitions in the mode of deformation.