An overview of understudied interaction types amongst large carnivores

Among the many different ways in which large carnivores interact with other organisms, predation and competition are those most studied and investigated. Studies on these topics have led to the creation of well-known models and theories (e.g. Lotka-Volterra's prey-predator equations, Paine's keystone species concept, or mesopredator release theory) used to explain ecosystem structure and food web dynamics. However, many other interaction types exist between mammals, birds and reptiles, including mutualism, commensalism and parasitism. Symbiosis and amensalism also occur. These interactions can be strong and ecosystem-structuring, yet they are seldom considered in large carnivore science. Here, we provide a brief overview of these interaction types, giving examples of their occurrence in nature, in an attempt to encourage greater scientific study of their role in food webs containing large mammalian carnivores.